Cognitive theory

Dear Lp Students:

Below is an in-depth description of Cognitive theory, including how is differs from other theories, what its implications are on education and examples. Please, if you have difficulty with this theory have a look at hits and go the too website for further information.

Piaget's Theory Differs From Others In Several Ways:
o It is concerned with children, rather than all learners.
o It focuses on development, rather than learning per se, so it does not address learning of information or specific behaviors.
o It proposes discrete stages of development, marked by qualitative differences, rather than a gradual increase in number and complexity of behaviors, concepts, ideas, etc.
The goal of the theory is to explain the mechanisms and processes by which the infant, and then the child, develops into an individual who can reason and think using hypotheses. 
To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes as a result of biological maturation and enviromental experience. Children construct an understanding of the world around them, then experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their environment.
There Are Three Basic Components To Piaget's Cognitive Theory:

Schemas

(building blocks of knowledge)




Processes that enable the transition from one stage to another (equilibrium, assimilation and  accommodation)



Stages of  Development:

sensorimotor,

preoperational,

concrete operational,

formal operational

Schemas

Piaget called the schema the basic building block of intelligent behavior – a way of organizing knowledge. Indeed, it is useful to think of schemas as “units” of knowledge, each relating to one aspect of the world, including objects, actions and abstract (i.e. theoretical) concepts.
When a child's existing schemas are capable of explaining what it can perceive around it, it is said to be in a state of equilibrium, i.e. a state of cognitive (i.e. mental) balance.
Piaget emphasized the importance of schemas in cognitive development, and described how they were developed or acquired. A schema can be defined as a set of linked mental representations of the world, which we use both to understand and to respond to situations. The assumption is that we store these mental representations and apply them when needed.
For example, a person might have a schema about buying a meal in a restaurant. The schema is a stored form of the pattern of behavior which includes looking at a menu, ordering food, eating it and paying the bill. This is an example of a type of schema called a 'script'.
Whenever they are in a restaurant, they retrieve this schema from memory and apply it to the situation. The schemas Piaget described tend to be simpler than this - especially those used by infants. He described how - as a child gets older - his or her schemas become more numerous and elaborate.

Piaget believed that newborn babies have some innate schemas - even before they have had much opportunity to experience the world.  These neonatal schemas are the cognitive structures underlying innate reflexes. These reflexes are genetically programmed into us.
For example babies have a sucking reflex, which is triggered by something touching the baby's lips.  A baby will suck a nipple, a comforter (dummy), or a person's finger.  Piaget therefore assumed that the baby has a 'sucking schema'.  Similarly the grasping reflex which is elicited when something touches the palm of a baby's hand, or the rooting reflex, in which a baby will turn its head towards something which touches its cheek, were assumed to result operations: for example shaking a rattle would be the combination of two schemas, grasping and shaking.

Assimilation and Accommodation

Jean Piaget viewed intellectual growth as a process of adaptation (adjustment) to the world. This happens through:

• Assimilation

  – Which is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.

• Accommodation

  – This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation.

• Equilibration

  – This is the force, which moves development along. Piaget believed that cognitive development did not progress at a steady rate, but rather in leaps and bounds.   Equilibrium is occurs when a child's schemas can deal with most new information through assimilation. However, an unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when new information cannot be fitted into existing schemas (assimilation).
  Equilibration is the force which drives the learning process as we do not like to be frustrated and will seek to restore balance by mastering the new challenge (accommodation). Once the new information is acquired the process of assimilation with the new schema will continue until the next time we need to make an adjustment to it.

Example of Assimilation

A 2 year old child sees a man who is bald on top of his head and has long frizzy hair on the sides. To his father’s horror, the toddler shouts “Clown, clown” (Sigler et al., 2003).

Example of Accommodation

In the “clown” incident, the boy’s father explained to his son that the man was not a clown and that even though his hair was like a clown’s, he wasn’t wearing a funny costume and wasn’t doing silly things to make people laugh
With this new knowledge, the boy was able to change his schema of “clown” and make this idea fit better to a standard concept of “clown”.

Stages of Development

A child's cognitive development is about a child developing or constructing a mental model of the world.
Imagine what it would be like if you did not have a mental model of your world.  It would mean that you would not be able to make so much use of information from your past experience, or to plan future actions.
Jean Piaget was interested both in how children learnt and in how they thought.
Piaget studied children from infancy to adolescence, and carried out many of his own investigations using his three children. He used the following research methods:
Naturalistic observation: Piaget made careful, detailed observations of children. These were mainly his own children and the children of friends. From these he wrote diary descriptions charting their development.
Clinical interviews and observations of older children who were able to understand questions and hold conversations.
Piaget believed that children think differently than adults and stated they go through 4 universal stages of cognitive development.  Development is therefore biologically based and changes as the child matures.  Cognition therefore develops in all children in the same sequence of stages.
Each child goes through the stages in the same order, and no stage can be missed out - although some individuals may never attain the later stages. There are individual differences in the rate at which children progress through stages.
Piaget did not claim that a particular stage was reached at a certain age - although descriptions of the stages often include an indication of the age at which the average child would reach each stage. Piaget believed that these stages are universal - i.e. that the same sequence of development occurs in children all over the world, whatever their culture.

Educational Implications

Piaget did not explicitly relate his theory to education, although later researchers have explained how features of Piaget's theory can be applied to teaching and learning.
Piaget has been extremely influential in developing educational policy and teaching. For example, a review of primary education by the UK government in 1966 was based strongly on Piaget’s theory. The result of this review led to the publication of the Plowden report (1967).
Discovery learning – the idea that children learn best through doing and actively exploring - was seen as central to the transformation of primary school curriculum.
'The report's recurring themes are individual learning, flexibility in the curriculum, the centrality of play in children's learning, the use of the environment, learning by discovery and the importance of the evaluation of children's progress - teachers should 'not assume that only what is measurable is valuable.'
Because Piaget's theory is based upon biological maturation and stages the notion of 'readiness' important. Readiness concerns when certain information or concepts should be taught. According to Piaget's theory children should not be taught certain concepts until they have reached the appropriate stage cognitive development.
Within the classroom learning should be student centred a accomplished through active discovery learning. The role of the teacher is to facilitate learning, rather than direct tuition. Therefore teachers should encourage the following within the classroom:

o Focus on the process of learning, rather than the end product of it.
o Using active methods that require rediscovering or reconstructing "truths".
o Using collaborative, as well as individual activities (so children can learn from each other).
o Devising situations that present useful problems, and create disequilibrium in the child.
o Evaluate the level of the child's development, so suitable tasks can be set.

Evaluation of Piaget's Theory

Strengths

• The influence of Piaget’s ideas in developmental psychology has been enormous. He changed how people viewed the child’s world and their methods of studying children. He was an inspiration to many who came after and took up his ideas. Piaget's ideas have generated a huge amount of research which has increased our understanding of cognitive development.
• His ideas have been of practical use in understanding and communicating with children, particularly in the field of education (Discovery Learning).

Weaknesses

• Are the stages real? Vygotsky and Bruner would rather not talk about stages at all, preferring to see development as continuous.  Others have queried the age ranges of the stages.  Some studies have shown that progress to the formal operational stage is not guaranteed. For example, Keating (1979) reported that 40-60% of college students fail at formal operation tasks, and Dasen (1994) states that only one-third of adults ever reach the formal operational stage.
• Because Piaget concentrated on the universal stages of cognitive development and biological maturation, he failed to consider the effect that the social setting and culture may have on cognitive development (re: Vygotsky).
• Piaget’s methods (observation and clinical interviews) are more open to biased interpretation than other methods, i.e. subjective (Piaget observed alone).
• As several studies have shown Piaget underestimated the abilities of children because his tests were sometimes confusing or difficult to understand (e.g. Martin Hughes, 1975).
• The concept of schema is incompatible with the theories of Bruner and Vygotsky. Behaviorism would also refute Piaget’s schema theory.
• Piaget carried out his studies with a handful of participants – in the early studies he generally used his own children (small / biased sample).

APA Style References

McLeod, S. A. (2009). Jean Piaget | Cognitive Theory. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html

Rough Zulu translation:
Dear LP Abafundi:
Ngezansi ngokujulile incazelo theory ekubamba kwengcondvo, kuhlanganise indlela kuba sihlukile kweminye imibono, yiziphi ngokusebenza kwawo kukhona on imfundo nezibonelo. Sicela, uma ukuthola kunzima nalesi theory bheka hits uhambe le too website ukuze uthole ulwazi olwengeziwe.
Theory Piaget sika Ehluke Kwabanye ngezindlela eziningi:
o It ikhathazekile nezingane, kunokuthi abafundi wonke.
o Ibhekisisa development, kunokuba ukufunda ngalinye se, ngakho ngeke ukubhekana yokufunda kolwazi noma ukuziphatha ethize.
o It uhlongoza izigaba ngokuqhubekayo yentuthuko, kwabonakala linye qualitative, kunokuba ube ukwanda kancane kancane inombolo nokuba yinkimbinkimbi ukuziphatha, imiqondo, imibono, njll
Umgomo inkolelo-mbono iwukuthi ukuchaza izindlela kanye nezinqubo ngazo usana, bese umntwana, ikhula iba umuntu angakwazi acabange futhi ucabange ngekusebentisa ubunzima.
To Piaget, nentuthuko ephawulekayo wayeyilungu kabusha okuqhubekayo izinqubo kwengqondo ngenxa nokuvuthwa yemvelo kanye nesipiliyoni enviromental. Izingane ukwakha ukuqonda elalibazungezile ke nakho ukungafani phakathi bakuthanda kakade nokuthi bethola kule ndawo.
Zintathu Components Basic To Piaget sika ekubamba kwengcondvo Theory:

Schemas
(ekwakhekeni yolwazi)

Izinqubo ezenza Ukuqeda eyodwa esigabeni kwesinye (equilibrium, nokwenziwa kanye yokuhlala)

Izigaba of Development:
sensorimotor,
preoperational,
ngokhonkolo ukusebenza,
esisemthethweni zokusebenza
Schemas



Piaget esebiza schema the basic isakhi lokuziphatha ohlakaniphile - kuyindlela ukuhlela ulwazi. Ngempela, kuyokusiza ukucabanga schemas njengoba 'Emayunithi' yolwazi, ngamunye eziphathelene isici sezwe, kuhlanganise izinjongo, izenzo kanye abstract (ie theory) imiqondo.
Lapho schemas wengane ekhona bayakwazi echaza nalokho kungaba ukubona bazungeza, it kuthiwa ngo esimweni equilibrium, okusho isimo engqondweni yethu (ie ngokwengqondo) balance.
Piaget wagcizelela ukubaluleka schemas ku nentuthuko ephawulekayo, futhi kuchazwe kanjani njengoba ithuthukiswe noma bathenga. I schema ingachazwa njengenkundla iziphakamiso exhumene ngengqondo zomhlaba, okuyinto sisebenzisa ukuyiqonda futhi aphendule ezimweni zombili. Umbono uwukuthi sigcina lezi izethulo ngengqondo futhi sizisebenzise kuzo uma sidingeka.
Ngokwesibonelo, umuntu angase abe schema mayelana kokuthenga ukudla esitolo sokudlela. I schema kuwuhlobo elondolozwe we eziholela ekuziphatheni okubandakanya ngibuka menu, iyala ukudla, wadla no okhokhela. Lena isibonelo uhlobo schema ngokuthi 'script'.
Noma nini zingabantu esitolo sokudlela, benza ukubuyisa lokhu schema ngekhanda futhi silisebenzise kuze isimo. I schemas Piaget echazwe avame ukuba lula kunalokho - ikakhulukazi lezo ezisetshenziswa izinsana. Wachaza indlela - njengendlela ekhula - schemas sakhe miningi futhi ophambili.

Piaget wayekholelwa ukuthi izinsana babe ezinye schemas kokuzalwa - ngisho nangaphambi kokuba baye kwadingeka ithuba kuningi ukuzwa jikelele. Lezi schemas ezisanda kubelethwa kukhona izakhiwo engqondweni yethu eziyisisekelo ikhaliphe kokuzalwa. Lezi ikhaliphe izakhi zahlelwa zibe nathi.
Isibonelo babies abe reflex Sucking, lokuyintfo senziwa into ethinta izindebe womntwana. Usana niyoncela a ingono, umduduzi (dummy), noma umunwe womuntu. Ngakho-ke Piaget babecabanga ukuthi umntwana has a 'schema abancela'. Ngokufanayo lo reflex ukuqonda alokhu wamcela lapho into ethinta intende yesandla nomntwana, noma reflex ukhula lwenkohlakalo egcwele, lapho ingane vula ikhanda layo maqondana into okuyinto ethinta esihlathini yayo, wayebhekwa umphumela imisebenzi: ngokwesibonelo shaking a khenqeza bekungaba inhlanganisela ka schemas ezimbili, ukuqonda nokuqondiswa kunyakaze.
Nokwenziwa kanye kuhlala


Jean Piaget ayebheka ukukhula engqondo njengendlela inqubo lithathelwe (ukulungiswa) emhlabeni. Lokhu kwenzeka nge:
nokwenziwa

- Yikuphi usebenzisa i-schema ekhona ukubhekana into entsha noma isimo.
kuhlala

- Lokhu kwenzeka lapho lo schema ekhona (ulwazi) akusebenzi, futhi udinga ukuba ishintshwe ukubhekana into entsha noma isimo.
Equilibration

- Lokhu ungamandla, esishukumisela ukuthuthukiswa kanye. Piaget wayekholelwa ukuthi nentuthuko ephawulekayo engathuthukanga ngesilinganiso engaguquguquki, kodwa kunalokho in intuthuko kanye imingcele. Equilibrium kuba kwenzeka uma schemas kwengane kungaba ukubhekana ngolwazi iningi olusha ngokusebenzisa nokwenziwa ingxenye. Nokho, i-state yobulili disequilibrium kwenzeka lapho ulwazi olusha asikwazi zangena schemas ezikhona (nokwenziwa).
Equilibration ungamandla okuyinto ushayela inqubo yokufunda njengoba Asithandi ukuba ucindezelekile futhi uzofuna ukubuyisela balance nge inkositini inselelo entsha (yokuhlala). Once ulwazi olusha is lalifundwa inqubo nokwenziwa naleli schema omusha kuzoqhubeka kuze kube ngokuzayo kudingeka enze izinguquko kuyona.

Isibonelo nokwenziwa


Ingane oneminyaka 2 ubudala ubona indoda oneminyaka Bald kwekhanda lakhe futhi izinwele frizzy ezinde ezinhlangothini. Ukuze horror kayise, le encane ememeza "Clown, clown" (Sigler et al., 2003).

Isibonelo kuhlala


In the "clown" isigameko, uyise womfana wachazela ngendodana yakhe ukuthi le ndoda wayengumuntu clown hhayi nokuthi nakuba izinwele zakhe sasifana sika clown, hhayi yena eyayigqoke indlela yokugqoka funny futhi awuzange ekwenzeni izinto silly ukuze enze abantu uhleko
With lolu lwazi olusha, umfana wakwazi ashintshe schema kwakhe 'clown "futhi wenze lokhu mbono bamba kangcono umqondo izinga" clown'.

Izigaba of Development


Ukukhula kwengane engqondweni yethu imayelana ingane okhulayo noma ukwakhiwa isibonelo ngengqondo zomhlaba.
Cabanga ukuthi bekuyoba njani ukube awuzange babe isibonelo ngengqondo ezwe lakho. It kungasho ukuthi ngeke ukwazi ukusebenzisa okungaka kolwazi kulokho esidlule, noma ukuhlela izenzo esizayo.
Jean Piaget wayenesithakazelo kokubili indlela izingane zafunda nakuzo ababecabanga kanjani.
Piaget wafunda izingane kusukela esewusana kuya usakhula, futhi kwenziwa nje eminingi kophenyo zakhe siqu besebenzisa izingane zakhe ezintathu. Yena izindlela zocwaningo elandelayo esetshenziswa:
Observation imvelo: Piaget enziwe ngokucophelela saphawula eningiliziwe izingane. Lawa kwakungewona ikakhulu izingane zakhe siqu kanye nezingane lwabangane. Kulezi ebhala idayari izincazelo charting ukuthuthukiswa yabo.
Izingxoxo Clinical nokubona zezingane amadala bakwazi ukuqonda ukuthi imibuzo bese ubamba izingxoxo.
Piaget wayekholelwa ukuthi izingane zicabanga awenzi abadala futhi washo babhekana 4 izigaba jikelele we nentuthuko ephawulekayo. Development Ngakho eziphila asekelwe noshintsho njengoba ingane ikhula. Ngakho-ke Cognition yenzeka yonke izingane ukulandelana ofanayo izigaba.
Ingane ngayinye sidlula ezigabeni ngekulandzelana efanayo, futhi akukho sigaba kungenziwa ngalahlekelwa - nakuba abanye abantu bangase nanini bathole izigaba kamuva. Kunomehluko ngamunye izinga lapho izingane ukuthuthuka ngokusebenzisa izigaba.
Piaget akazange bathi esikhathini esithile safika ezingeni yobudala ethile - nakuba izincazelo ze-izigaba ngokuvamile ahlanganisa okubonisa yobudala lapho umntwana isilinganiso zaziyoba sifinyelele ngasinye sigaba. Piaget wayekholelwa ukuthi lezi izigaba kukhona jikelele - okusho ukuthi ukulandelana efanayo yentuthuko kwenzeka ezinganeni kuwo wonke jikelele, noma yini isiko labo.

lezinyathelo ezemfundo


Piaget akazange ngokucacile isho theory yakhe ukuba imfundo, nakuba abacwaningi kamuva ziye sachaza indlela timphawu theory Piaget sika singasetshenziswa nokufundisa kanye nokufunda.
Piaget ubelokhu abanethonya kakhulu ekuthuthukiseni inchubomgomo kwezemfundo nokufundisa. Ngokwesibonelo, Ukubukeza imfundo aphansi nguhulumeni UK ngo 1966 yayisekelwe kakhulu kwi theory Piaget sika. Umphumela walokhu review kwaholela kushicilelwe umbiko Plowden (1967).
Lokufunda Ukutholwa - umqondo wokuthi izingane bafundza kahle ngokwenza kanye ngenkuthalo bahlola - kwabonakala usekelwe uguquko esikoleni aphansi ikharikhulamu.
'Ezilokhu zivela izingqikithi Umbiko izifunda yokufunda ngabanye, ukushintsha-shintsha kuleli lwezifundo, ukubaluleka umdlalo kwezemfundo lezingane, ukusetshenziswa kwemvelo, ukufunda nge kokutholakala begodu ukubaluleka kokuhlaziywa inqubekelaphambili yezingane - othisha kufanele' Ungacabangi ukuthi kuphela ukuthi yikuphi ulinganiseke kuyigugu. '
Ngoba theory Piaget sika kusekelwe nokuvuthwa begazi nezigaba umqondo 'ukulungela' ebaluleke. Ukulungela ukukhathazeka uma ukwaziswa okuthile noma imiqondo kumele afundiswe. Ngokusho ithiyori abantwana Piaget akufanele bafundiswe imiqondo ethile kuze baye bayofika ezifanele nentuthuko ephawulekayo isigaba.
Ngaphakathi yokufunda ekilasini kumele kube umfundi igxile a lwenzeka active zokufunda ukutholakala. Indima uthisha ukuba lula ekufundeni, kunokuthi yesikole ngqo. Ngakho-ke othisha kumele sikhuthaze okulandelayo ngaphakathi ekilasini:

o Gxila inqubo yokufunda, kunokuthi umkhiqizo ekupheleni kwaso.
o Ukusebenzisa izindlela asebenzayo edinga ukuthola noma ukuvuselela "amaqiniso".
o Ukusebenzisa ngokubambisana, kanye nemisebenzi ngabanye (ngakho izingane angafunda nomunye).
o abaceba izimo eveza izinkinga ewusizo, futhi adale disequilibrium in ingane.
o Linganisa izinga zokuthuthukisa wengane, imisebenzi ezifanele kangaka kungenziwa isethwe.

Kokuhlaziywa Theory Piaget sika


amakhono


Ithonya imibono Piaget ngo-Psychology zokuthuthukisa bekulokhu omkhulu. Washintsha indlela abantu zibhekwa jikelele wengane kanye nezindlela zabo ngifunda izingane. Wayengumuntu i ugqozi abaningi ababeza ngemuva bathatha imibono yakhe. Imibono Piaget iye elakhiwe inani elikhulu locwaningo ebizwa anda ukuqonda kwethu nentuthuko ephawulekayo.
Imibono yakhe zokusetshenziswa esiwusizo ekuqondeni ukuxhumana nezingane, ikakhulukazi emkhakheni wezemfundo (Discovery Learning).
ubuthakathaka


Are the izigaba zangempela? Vygotsky and Bruner elingeke lafuna ukukhuluma ngezigaba nhlobo, wakhetha ukubona ukuthuthukiswa njengoba eqhubekayo. Abanye baye sabuza zibe neminyaka engakanani the izigaba. Ezinye izifundo ziye lwabonisa ukuthi inqubekelaphambili esigabeni zokusebenza ehleliwe asiqinisekiswa. Ngokwesibonelo, Keating (1979) babika ukuthi 40-60% labafundi basekolishi bayahluleka at lokuhlelekile operation imisebenzi, futhi Dasen (1994) uthi kuphela-yesithathu omunye abadala esake ukufinyelela esigabeni tekusebenta esisemthethweni.
Ngoba Piaget wagxila the izigaba jikelele we nentuthuko ephawulekayo kanye nokuvuthwa yemvelo, Akazange acabange ngemiphumela isizinda kwezenhlalo namasiko abangaba nalo ekukhuleni engqondweni yethu (re: Vygotsky).
Izindlela Piaget sika (observation and interview zokwelapha) maningi lingachazwa eyayivela kunezinye izindlela, ie subjective (Piaget waphawula wedwa).
Njengoba izifundo eziningana ziye lwabonisa Piaget kancane ngamakhono zezingane ngoba Ulinga zase ngezinye izikhathi edidayo noma kunzima ukuziqonda (isib. Martin Hughes, 1975).
Umqondo we schema akuvumelani the nezimfundiso Bruner and Vygotsky. Behaviorism bekungaba godu ukuphikisa Piaget sika schema theory.
Piaget eyenziwa izifundo zakhe nge nedlanzana iqhaza - in the izifundo ekuqaleni kwawo yena ngokuvamile wayisebenzisa izingane zakhe siqu (encane isampula / sokucwasa).
Apa Style Izinkomba

McLeod, S. A. (2009). Jean Piaget | ekubamba kwengcondvo Theory. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html